Setting up UNIX - Sixth Edition
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I just generated this from a Unix V6 image, by simply running:
# nroff -ms /usr/doc/start/start > /dev/lp0
And the removing the embedded page breaks.
SETTING
_______ UP
__ UNIX
____ - Sixth
_____ Edition
_______
Enclosed are:
1. `UNIX Programmer's Manual,' Sixth Edition.
2. Documents with the following titles:
Setting Up UNIX - Sixth Edition
The UNIX Time-Sharing System
C Reference Manual
Programming in C - A Tutorial
UNIX Assembler Reference Manual
A Tutorial Introduction to the ED Text Editor
UNIX for Beginners
RATFOR - A Preprocessor for a Rational Fortran
YACC - Yet Another Compiler-Compiler
NROFF Users' Manual
The UNIX I/O System
A Manual for the Tmg Compiler-writing Language
On the Security of UNIX
The M6 Macro Processor
A System for Typesetting Mathematics
DC - An Interactive Desk Calculator
BC - An Arbitrary Precision Desk-Calculator Language
The Portable C Library (on UNIX)
UNIX Summary
3. The UNIX software on magtape or disk pack.
If you are set up to do it, it might be a good idea im-
mediately to make a copy of the disk or tape to guard
against disaster. The tape contains 12100 512-byte records
followed by a single file mark; only the first 4000 512-byte
blocks on the disk are significant.
The system as distributed corresponds to three fairly
full RK packs. The first contains the binary version of all
programs, and the source for the operating system itself;
the second contains all remaining source programs; the third
contains manuals intended to be printed using the formatting
programs roff or nroff. The `binary' disk is enough to run
the system, but you will almost certainly want to modify
some source programs.
October 10, 1975
- 2 -
Making
______ a
_ Disk
____ From
____ Tape
____
If your system is on magtape, perform the following
bootstrap procedure to obtain a disk with the binaries.
1. Mount magtape on drive 0 at load point.
2. Mount formatted disk pack on drive 0.
3. Key in and execute at 100000
TU10 TU16
012700 (to be added)
172526
010040
012740
060003
000777
The tape should move and the CPU loop. (The TU10 code
is not
___ the DEC bulk ROM for tape; it reads block 0, not
block 1.)
4. Halt and restart the CPU at 0. The tape should rewind.
The console should type `='.
5. Copy the magtape to disk by the following. This as-
sumes TU10 and RK05; see 6 below for other devices.
The machine's printouts are shown in italic (the `='
signs should be considered italic). Terminate each
line you type by carriage return or line-feed.
= tmrk
disk
____ offset
______
0
tape
____ offset
______
100 (See 6 below)
count
_____
1 (The tape should move)
= tmrk
disk
____ offset
______
1
tape
____ offset
______
101 (See 7 below)
count
_____
3999 (The tape moves lots more)
=
To explain: the tmrk
____ program copies tape to disk with
the given offsets and counts. Its first use copies a
bootstrap program to disk block 0; the second use
copies the file system itself onto the disk. You may
get back to `=' level by starting at 137000.
October 10, 1975
- 3 -
6. If you have TU16 tape say `htrk' instead of `tmrk' in
the above example. If you have an RP03 disk, say
`tmrp' or `htrp', and use a 99 instead of 100 tape
offset. If you have an RP04 disk, use `tmhp' or `hthp'
instead or `tmrk', and use a 98 instead of 100 tape
offset. The different offsets load bootstrap programs
appropriate to the disk they will live on.
7. This procedure generates the `binary' disk; the
`source' disk may be generated on another RK pack by
using a tape offset of 4101 instead of 101. The `docu-
ment' disk is at offset 8101 instead of 101. Unless
you have only a single RK drive, it is probably wise to
wait on generating these disks. Better tools are
available using UNIX itself.
Booting
_______ UNIX
____
Once the UNIX `binary' disk is obtained, the system is
booted by keying in and executing one of the following pro-
grams at 100000. These programs correspond to the DEC bulk
ROMs for disks, since they read in and execute block 0 at
location 0.
RK05 RP03 RP04
012700 012700 (to be added)
177414 176726
005040 005040
005040 005040
010040 005040
012740 010040
000005 012740
105710 000005
002376 105710
005007 002376
005007
Now follow the indicated dialog, where `@' and `#' are
prompts:
@ rkunix (or `rpunix' or `hpunix')
mem
___ = xxx
___
login
_____: root
____
#
The mem
___ message gives the memory available to user programs
in .1K units. Most of the UNIX software will run with 120
(for 12K words), but some things require much more.
UNIX is now running, and the `UNIX Programmer's manual'
applies; references below of the form X-Y mean the subsec-
tion named X in section Y of the manual. The `#' is the
prompt from the UNIX Shell, and indicates you are logged in
as the super-user. The only valid user names are `root' and
October 10, 1975
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`bin'. The root is the super-user and bin is the owner of
nearly every file in the file system.
Before UNIX is turned up completely, a few configura-
tion dependent exercises must be performed. At this point,
it would be wise to read all of the manuals and to augment
this reading with hand to hand combat. It might be instruc-
tive to examine the Shell run files mentioned below.
Reconfiguration
_______________
The UNIX system running is configured to run on an
11/40 with the given disk, TU10 magtape and TU56 DECtape.
This is almost certainly not the correct configuration.
Print (cat-I) the file /usr/sys/run. This file is a set of
Shell commands that will completely recompile the system
source, install it in the correct libraries and build the
three configurations for rk, rp and hp.
Using the Shell file as a guide, compile (cc-I) and
rename (mv-I) the configuration program `mkconf'. Run the
configuration program and type into it a list of the con-
trollers on your system. Choose from:
pc (PC11)
lp (LP11)
rf (RS11)
hs (RS03/RS04)
tc (TU56)
rk (RK03/RK05)
tm (TU10)
rp (RP03)
hp (RP04)
ht (TU16)
dc* (DC11)
kl* (KL11/DL11-ABC)
dl* (DL11-E)
dp (DP11)
dn (DN11)
dh (DH11)
dhdm (DM11-BB)
The devices marked with * should be preceded by a number
specifying how many. (The console typewriter is automati-
cally included; don't count it in the kl specification.)
Mkconf will generate the two files l.s (trap vectors) and
c.c (configuration table). Take a careful look at l.s to
make sure that all the devices that you have are assembled
in the correct interrupt vectors. If your configuration is
non-standard, you will have to modify l.s to fit your confi-
guration.
In the run Shell file, the 11/45 code is commented out.
If you have an 11/45 you must also edit (ed-I) the file
October 10, 1975
- 5 -
/usr/sys/conf/m45.s to set the assembly flag fpp to reflect
if you have the FP11-B floating point unit. The main
difference between an 11/40 and an 11/45 (or 11/70) system
is that in the former instruction restart after a segmenta-
tion violation caused by overflowing a user stack must be
handled by software, while in the latter machines there is
hardware help. As mentioned above, the 11/45 and 11/70 sys-
tems include conditionally-enabled code to save the status
of the floating point unit when switching users. The source
for such things is in one of the two files m40.s and m45.s.
Another difference is that in 11/45 and 11/70 systems
the instruction and data spaces are separated inside UNIX
itself. Since the layout of addresses in the system is
somewhat peculiar, and not directly supported by the link-
editor ld
__, the sysfix
______ program has to be run before the load-
ed output file can be booted.
There are certain magic numbers and configuration
parameters imbedded in various device drivers that you may
want to change. The device addresses of each device are de-
fined in each driver. In case you have any non-standard
device addresses, just change the address and recompile.
(The device drivers are in the directory /usr/sys/dmr.)
The DC11 driver is set to run 14 lines. This can be
changed in dc.c.
The DH11 driver will only handle a single DH with a
full complement of 16 lines. If you have less, you may want
to edit dh.c.
The DN11 driver will handle 3 DN's. Edit dn.c.
The DP11 driver can only handle a single DP. This can-
not be easily changed.
The KL/DL driver is set up to run a single DL11-A, -B,
or -C (the console) and no DL11-E's. To change this, edit
kl.c to have NKL11 reflect the total number of DL11-ABC's
and NDL11 to reflect the number of DL11-E's. So far as the
driver is concerned, the difference between the devices is
their addresses.
The line printer driver is set up to print the 96 char-
acter set on 80 column paper (LP11-H) with indenting. Edit
lp.c.
All of the disk and tape drivers (rf.c, rk.c, rp.c,
tm.c, tc.c, hs.c, hp.c, ht.c) are set up to run 8 drives and
should not need to be changed. The big disk drivers (rp.c
and hp.c) have partition tables in them which you may want
to experiment with.
October 10, 1975
- 6 -
After all the corrections have been made, use
/usr/sys/run as a guide to recompile the changed drivers,
install them in /usr/sys/lib2 and to assemble the trap vec-
tors (l.s), configuration table (c.c) and machine language
assist (m40.s or m45.s). After all this, link edit the ob-
jects (ld-I) and if you have an 11/45, sysfix the result.
The final object file (a.out) should be renamed /unix and
booted. See Boot Procedures-VIII for a discussion of boot-
ing. (Note: remember, before booting, always perform a
sync-VIII to force delayed output to the disk.)
Special
_______ Files
_____
Next you must put in all of the special files in the
directory /dev using mknod-VIII. Print the configuration
file c.c created above. This is the major device switch of
each device class (block and character). There is one line
for each device configured in your system and a null line
for place holding for those devices not configured. The
block special devices are put in first by executing the fol-
lowing generic command for each disk or tape drive. (Note
that some of these files already exist in the directory
/dev. Examine each file with ls-I with -l flag to see if
the file should be removed.)
/etc/mknod /dev/NAME b MAJOR MINOR
The NAME is selected from the following list:
c.c NAME device
rf rf0 RS fixed head disk
tc tap0 TU56 DECtape
rk rk0 RK03 RK05 moving head disk
tm mt0 TU10 TU16 magtape
rp rp0 RP moving head disk
hs hs0 RS03 RS04 fixed head disk
hp hp0 RP04 moving head disk
The major device number is selected by counting the line
number (from zero) of the device's entry in the block confi-
guration table. Thus the first entry in the table bdevsw
would be major device zero.
The minor device is the drive number, unit number or
partition as described under each device in section IV. The
last digit of the name (all given as 0 in the table above)
should reflect the minor device number. For tapes where the
unit is dial selectable, a special file may be made for each
possible selection.
The same goes for the character devices. Here the
names are arbitrary except that devices meant to be used for
teletype access should be named /dev/ttyX, where X is any
character. The files tty8 (console), mem, kmem, null are
October 10, 1975
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already correctly configured.
The disk and magtape drivers provide a `raw' interface
to the device which provides direct transmission between the
user's core and the device and allows reading or writing
large records. The raw device counts as a character device,
and should have the name of the corresponding standard block
special file with `r' prepended. Thus the raw magtape files
would be called /dev/rmtX.
When all the special files have been created, care
should be taken to change the access modes (chmod-I) on
these files to appropriate values.
The
___ Source
______ Disk
____
You should now extract the source disk. This can be
done as described above or the UNIX command dd-I may be
used. The disk image begins at block 4100 on the tape, so
the command
dd if=/dev/mt0 of=/dev/rk1 count=4000 skip=4100
might be used to extract the disk to RK drive 1.
This disk should be mounted (mount-VIII) on
/usr/source; it contains directories of source code. In
each directory is a Shell file run that will recompile all
the source in the directory. These run files should be con-
sulted whenever you need to recompile.
Floating
________ Point
_____
UNIX only supports the 11/45 FP11-B floating point un-
it. For machines without this hardware, there is a user
subroutine available that will catch illegal instruction
traps and interpret floating point operations. (See
fptrap-III.) The system as delivered has this code included
in all commands that have floating point. This code is nev-
er used if the FP hardware is available and therefore does
not need to be changed. The penalty is a little bit of disk
space and loading time for the few floating commands.
The C compiler in /usr/source/c probably should be
changed if floating point is available. The fpp flag in
c0t.s should be set and C should be recompiled and reloaded
and installed. This allows floating point C programs to be
compiled without the -f flag and prevents the floating point
interpreter from getting into new floating programs. (See
/usr/source/c/run.)
October 10, 1975
- 8 -
Time
____ Conversion
__________
If your machine is not in the Eastern time zone, you
must edit (ed-I) the subroutine /usr/source/s4/ctime.c to
reflect your local time. The variable `timezone' should be
changed to reflect the time difference between local time
and GMT. For EST, this is 5*60*60; for PST it would be
8*60*60. This routine also contains the names of the stan-
dard and Daylight Savings time zone; so `EST' and `EDT'
might be changed to `PST' and `PDT' respectively. Notice
that these two names are in upper case and escapes may be
needed (tty-IV). Finally, there is a `daylight' flag; when
it is 1 it causes the time to shift to Daylight Savings au-
tomatically between the last Sundays in April and October
(or other algorithms in 1974 and 1975). Normally this will
not have to be reset. After ctime.c has been edited it
should be compiled and installed in its library. (See
/usr/source/s4/run.) Then you should (at your leisure)
recompile and reinstall all programs performing time conver-
sion. These include: (in s1) date, dump, ls, cron, (in s2)
mail, pr, restor, who, sa and tp.
Disk
____ Layout
______
If there are to be more file systems mounted than just
the root, use mkfs-VIII to create the new file system and
put its mounting in the file /etc/rc (see init-VIII and
mount-VIII). (You might look at /etc/rc anyway to see what
has been provided for you.)
There are two considerations in deciding how to adjust
the arrangement of things on your disks: the most important
is making sure there is adequate space for what is required;
secondarily, throughput should be maximized. The RK disk
(or its image) as distributed has 4000 blocks for file
storage, and the remainder of the disk (872 blocks) is set
aside for swap space. In our own system, which allows 14
simultaneous users, this amount of swap space is not quite
enough, so we use 1872 blocks for this purpose; it is large
enough so running out of swap space never occurs.
Many common system programs (C, the editor, the assem-
bler etc.) create intermediate files in the /tmp directory,
so the file system where this is stored also should be made
large enough to accommodate most high-water marks. In an
idle state, we have about 900 free blocks on the file system
where /tmp resides, and hit the bottom every few days or so.
(This causes a momentary disruption, but not a crash, as
swap-space runout does.) All the programs that create files
in /tmp try to take care to delete them, but most are not
immune to events like being hung up upon, and can leave
dregs. The directory should be examined every so often and
the old files deleted.
October 10, 1975
- 9 -
Exhaustion of user-file space is certain to occur now
and then; the only mechanisms for controlling this
phenomenon are occasional use of du-I and threatening mes-
sages of the day and personal letters.
The efficiency with which UNIX is able to use the CPU
is largely dictated by the configuration of disk controll-
ers. For general time-sharing applications, the best stra-
tegy is to try to split user files, the root directory (in-
cluding the /tmp directory) and the swap area among three
controllers. In our own system, for example, we have user
files on an RP, the root on an RF fixed-head disk, and swap
on an RK. This is best for us since the RK has a faster
transfer rate than the rather slow RF, and in swapping the
transfer rate rather than access time is the dominant influ-
ence on throughput.
Once you have decided how to make best use of your
hardware, the question is how to initialize it. If you have
the equipment, the best way to move a file system is to dump
it (dump-VIII) to magtape, use mkfs-VIII to create the new
file system, and restore the tape. If you don't have
magtape, dump accepts an argument telling where to put the
dump; you might use another disk or DECtape. Sometimes a
file system has to be increased in logical size without
copying. The super-block of the device has a word giving
the highest address which can be allocated. For relatively
small increases, this word can be patched using the debugger
(db-I) and the free list reconstructed using icheck-VIII.
The size should not be increased very greatly by this tech-
nique, however, since although the allocatable space will
increase the maximum number of files will not (that is, the
i-list size can't be changed). Read and understand the
description given in file system-VI before playing around in
this way.
If you have only an RP disk, see section rp-IV for some
suggestions on how to lay out the information on it. The
file systems distributed on tape, containing the binary, the
source, and the manuals, are each only 4000 blocks long.
Perhaps the simplest way to integrate the latter two into a
large file system is to extract the tape into the upper part
of the RP, dump it, and restore it into an empty, non-
overlapping file system structure. If you have to merge a
file system into another, existing one, the best bet is to
use ncheck-VIII to get a list of names, then edit this list
into a sequence of mkdir and cp commands which will serve as
input to the Shell. (But notice that owner information is
lost.)
October 10, 1975
- 10 -
New
___ Users
_____
Install new users by editing the password file
/etc/passwd (passwd-V). You'll have to make current direc-
tories for the new users and change their owners to the new-
ly installed name. Login as each user to make sure the
password file is correctly edited. For example:
ed /etc/passwd
$a
joe::10:1::/usr/joe:
.
w
q
mkdir /usr/joe
chown joe /usr/joe
login joe
ls -la
login root
This will make a new login entry for joe. His default
current directory is /usr/joe which has been created. The
delivered password file has the user ken
___ in it to be used as
a prototype.
Multiple
________ Users
_____
If UNIX is to support simultaneous access from more
than just the console teletype, the file /etc/ttys (ttys-V)
has to be edited. For some historical reason tty8 is the
name of the console typewriter. To add new typewriters be
sure the device is configured and the special file exists,
then set the first character of the appropriate line of
/etc/ttys to 1 (or add a new line). Note that init.c will
have to be recompiled if there are to be more than 20 type-
writers. Also note that if the special file is inaccessible
when init tries to create a process for it, the system will
thrash trying and retrying to open it.
File
____ System
______ Health
______
Periodically (say every day or so) and always after a
crash, you should check all the file systems for consistency
(icheck, dcheck-VIII). It is quite important to execute
sync (VIII) before rebooting or taking the machine down.
This is done automatically every 30 seconds by the update
program (VIII) when a multiple-user system is running, but
you should do it anyway to make sure.
Dumping of the file system should be done regularly,
since once the system is going it is very easy to become
complacent. Just remember that our RP controller has failed
three times, each time in such a way that all information on
the disk was wiped out without any error status from the
October 10, 1975
- 11 -
controller. Complete and incremental dumps are easily done
with the dump command (VIII) but restoration of individual
files is painful. Dumping of files by name is best done by
tp (I) but the number of files is limited. Finally if there
are enough drives entire disks can be copied using cp-I, or
preferably with dd-I using the raw special files and an ap-
propriate block size. Note that there is no stand-alone
program with UNIX that will restore any of these formats.
Unless some action has been taken to prevent destruction of
a running version of UNIX, you can find yourself stranded
even though you have backup.
October 10, 1975
- 12 -
Odds
____ and
___ Ends
____
The programs dump, icheck, dcheck, ncheck, and df
(source in /usr/source/s1 and /usr/source/s2) should be
changed to reflect your default mounted file system devices.
Print the first few lines of these programs and the changes
will be obvious.
If you would like to share any UNIX compatible software
with others, please let us know about it. If you find bugs
in the software or the documentation, again let us know.
Lastly, there is a UNIX users' group forming. To get
on their mailing list, send your name(s) and address to:
Prof. Melvin Ferentz
Physics Dept.
Brooklyn College of CUNY
Brooklyn, N.Y. 11210
Good luck.
Ken Thompson
Dennis Ritchie
October 10, 1975
