Notable early computing devices - Revision history

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	* Brian Randell (editor), [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-96145-8 ''The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers''], Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1973, 1982 (3rd edition)		* Brian Randell (editor), [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-96145-8 ''The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers''], Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1973, 1982 (3rd edition)
	* Nicholas Metropolis, Jack Howlett, Gian-Carlo Rota (editors), [https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780124916500/a-history-of-computing-in-the-twentieth-century ''A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century''], Academic Press, New York, 1980		* Nicholas Metropolis, Jack Howlett, Gian-Carlo Rota (editors), [https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780124916500/a-history-of-computing-in-the-twentieth-century ''A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century''], Academic Press, New York, 1980
			* Andrew D. Booth, Kathleen H. V. Booth, ''Automatic Digital Calculators'', Butterworths Scientific Publications, London, 1953 - has fairly good coverage of pre-computer devices
	* Raúl Rojas, Ulf Hashagen (editors), ''The First Computers: History and Architectures'', MIT Press, Cambridge, 2002		* Raúl Rojas, Ulf Hashagen (editors), ''The First Computers: History and Architectures'', MIT Press, Cambridge, 2002
	* Doron Swade, ''The Difference Engine: Charles Babbage and the Quest to Build the First Computer'', Viking, New York, 1991 - excellent history of the Science Museum's project to build an actual Difference Engine		* Doron Swade, ''The Difference Engine: Charles Babbage and the Quest to Build the First Computer'', Viking, New York, 1991 - excellent history of the Science Museum's project to build an actual Difference Engine

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	==Electronic computing devices==		==Electronic computing devices==

	At about the same time as the ASCC, in 1938, [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] took the next step, and began the creation of the first [[electronic]] digital computing device, later called the [[Atanasoff-Berry Computer]]. It was not at all programmable or general-purpose; it could only solve systems of simultaneous equations. It was notable for having probably inspired [[John Mauchly]] to use a digital electronic approach when he later set out to build the [[ENIAC]]; and ~~also~~ for being the first digital electronic computing device to use [[capacitor]]-based memory - an approach to memory now ubiquitous in the [[Dynamic RAM]] of all modern computers.		At about the same time as the ASCC, in 1938, [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] took the next step, and began the creation of the first [[electronic]] digital computing device, later called the [[Atanasoff-Berry Computer]]. It was not at all programmable or general-purpose; it could only solve systems of simultaneous equations. It was also notable for having probably inspired [[John Mauchly]] to use a digital electronic approach when he later set out to build the [[ENIAC]]; and for being the first digital electronic computing device to use [[capacitor]]-based memory - an approach to memory now ubiquitous in the [[Dynamic RAM]] of all modern computers.

	The [[Colossus]] digital electronic code-breaking devices of [[Tommy Flowers]], built in the UK during World War Two (construction of the first one started in 1943), were notable because they showed that large electronic computing devices could be made to operate reliably; because quite a few were produced; and because many of the post-War computer pioneers in the UK learned about the suitability of electronics for digital computing devices from them. They are often described as 'programmable', but this is incorrect - they had no program of any form, and they were not general-purpose; a better description is 'configurable'.		The [[Colossus]] digital electronic code-breaking devices of [[Tommy Flowers]], built in the UK during World War Two (construction of the first one started in 1943), were notable because they showed widely that large electronic computing devices could be made to operate reliably; because quite a few were produced; and because many of the post-War computer pioneers in the UK learned about the suitability of electronics for digital computing devices from them. They are often described as 'programmable', but this is incorrect - they had no program of any form, and they were not general-purpose; a better description is 'configurable'.

	Effectively the last step before true computers was the ENIAC, a large digital electronic computing device. As originally designed, it was only configurable, requiring considerable effort to re-configure it to perform a different computation (although it was general-purpose, unlike the Atanasoff–Berry Computer and Colossus). In 1947 an effort was started to re-configure it in a way that added a certain amount of programmability, via a program stored in the 'function-table switches' (originally intended as a ROM data source). Later, minor [[hardware]] modifications improved ENIACs efficiency when configured as a stored-program machine; it started to operate in that mode in 1948.		Effectively the last step before true computers was the ENIAC, a large digital electronic computing device. As originally designed, it was only configurable, requiring considerable effort to re-configure it to perform a different computation (although it was general-purpose, unlike the Atanasoff–Berry Computer and Colossus). In 1947 an effort was started to re-configure it in a way that added a certain amount of programmability, via a program stored in the 'function-table switches' (originally intended as a [[read-only memory\|ROM]] data source). Later, minor [[hardware]] modifications improved ENIACs efficiency when configured as a stored-program machine; it started to operate in that mode in 1948.

	==Further reading==		==Further reading==

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	==Electronic computing devices==		==Electronic computing devices==

	At about the same time as the ASCC, in 1938, [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] took the next step, and began the creation of the first [[electronic]] digital computing device, later called the [[Atanasoff-Berry Computer]]. It was not at all programmable or general-purpose; it could only solve systems of simultaneous equations. It was notable for having inspired [[John Mauchly]] to use a digital electronic approach when he later set out to build the [[ENIAC]]; and also for being the first digital electronic computing device to use [[capacitor]]-based memory - an approach to memory now ubiquitous in the [[Dynamic RAM]] of all modern computers.		At about the same time as the ASCC, in 1938, [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] took the next step, and began the creation of the first [[electronic]] digital computing device, later called the [[Atanasoff-Berry Computer]]. It was not at all programmable or general-purpose; it could only solve systems of simultaneous equations. It was notable for having probably inspired [[John Mauchly]] to use a digital electronic approach when he later set out to build the [[ENIAC]]; and also for being the first digital electronic computing device to use [[capacitor]]-based memory - an approach to memory now ubiquitous in the [[Dynamic RAM]] of all modern computers.

	The [[Colossus]] digital electronic code-breaking devices of [[Tommy Flowers]], built in the UK during World War Two (construction of the first one started in 1943), were notable because they showed that large electronic computing devices could be made to operate reliably; because quite a few were produced; and because many of the post-War computer pioneers in the UK learned about the suitability of electronics for digital computing devices from them. They are often described as 'programmable', but this is incorrect - they had no program of any form, and they were not general-purpose; a better description is 'configurable'.		The [[Colossus]] digital electronic code-breaking devices of [[Tommy Flowers]], built in the UK during World War Two (construction of the first one started in 1943), were notable because they showed that large electronic computing devices could be made to operate reliably; because quite a few were produced; and because many of the post-War computer pioneers in the UK learned about the suitability of electronics for digital computing devices from them. They are often described as 'programmable', but this is incorrect - they had no program of any form, and they were not general-purpose; a better description is 'configurable'.

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	'''Notable early computing devices''' are [[computing device]]s which marked significant steps on the road from primitive computing devices (such as mechanical adding machines) to [[computer]]s. The list below are the ones which the author of this ~~pages~~ deems the most significant ones.		'''Notable early computing devices''' are [[computing device]]s which marked significant steps on the road from primitive computing devices (such as mechanical adding machines) to [[computer]]s. The list below are the ones which the author of this page deems the most significant ones.

	Depending exactly how one defines 'computer', some of these might have been computers. If a computer has to be able to modify its own [[program]], none of these qualify. If it has to have the ability to do [[conditional branch]]es, those were added to the [[Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator]] and [[Zuse Z4]] later in their lives.		Depending exactly how one defines 'computer', some of these might have been computers. If a computer has to be able to modify its own [[program]], none of these qualify. If it has to have the ability to do [[conditional branch]]es, those were added to the [[Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator]] and [[Zuse Z4]] later in their lives.

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	'''Notable early computing devices''' are [[computing device]]s which marked significant steps on the road from primitive computing devices (such as mechanical adding machines) to ~~'computers'~~. ~~These~~ are the ones which the author of this pages deems the most significant ones.		'''Notable early computing devices''' are [[computing device]]s which marked significant steps on the road from primitive computing devices (such as mechanical adding machines) to [[computer]]s. The list below are the ones which the author of this pages deems the most significant ones.

	Depending exactly how one defines 'computer', some of these might have been computers. If a computer has to be able to modify its own [[program]] (which, it must be emphasized, is a specified series of elementary steps, stored in the device in some form, not simply the ability to make physical changes to the device to change what calculation it performs - even if those changes are instantiated in something that was added to the device for that exact purpose, like the [[plug-board]]s of the [[ENIAC]]) like a [[Turing machine]], none of these qualify. If it has to have the ability to do [[conditional branch]]es, those were added to the [[Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator]] and [[Zuse Z4]] later in their lives.		Depending exactly how one defines 'computer', some of these might have been computers. If a computer has to be able to modify its own [[program]], none of these qualify. If it has to have the ability to do [[conditional branch]]es, those were added to the [[Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator]] and [[Zuse Z4]] later in their lives.

	Complex computing devices (i.e. things considerably more complex than a simple adding machines) generally preceded the creation of computers (as defined above); although as Michael Williams observed, "If you add enough adjectives to a description you can always claim [a particular machine to be the 'first']."

	==Non-electronic early computing devices==		==Non-electronic early computing devices==
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	Some of the first powerful computing devices were those of [[Charles Babbage]]. A prototype of the first, the [[Difference Engine]] (an idea originated by Johann Helfrich von Müller in 1786) was started in the 1820's, but never finished. (The Science Museum recently built an actual Difference Engine, using a better design he created in 1847-49, but never attempted to build; it worked reasonably well.) His later proposed [[Analytical Engine]] (conceived in the 1830's; prototyping begun in the 1860's) was the first ''programmable'' computing device, and a general-purpose one, but its program was fixed (in [[read-only memory]], effectively). His engines were all [[digital]], but entirely mechanical.		Some of the first powerful computing devices were those of [[Charles Babbage]]. A prototype of the first, the [[Difference Engine]] (an idea originated by Johann Helfrich von Müller in 1786) was started in the 1820's, but never finished. (The Science Museum recently built an actual Difference Engine, using a better design he created in 1847-49, but never attempted to build; it worked reasonably well.) His later proposed [[Analytical Engine]] (conceived in the 1830's; prototyping begun in the 1860's) was the first ''programmable'' computing device, and a general-purpose one, but its program was fixed (in [[read-only memory]], effectively). His engines were all [[digital]], but entirely mechanical.

	Vannevar Bush created his Differential Analyzer at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|MIT]] in 1928–1931; it was an [[analog]] device, mostly mechanical. Many similar machines were then created in the US, UK, Norway, etc. ~~It in~~ some ways created the environment for the creation of [[Whirlwind]].		Vannevar Bush created his Differential Analyzer at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|MIT]] in 1928–1931; it was an [[analog]] device, mostly mechanical. Many similar machines were then created in the US, UK, Norway, etc; this created an environment in which people were used to using complex computing devices to solve problems, and thus laid the ground for true computers. In some ways, it created the environment for the creation of [[Whirlwind]] (an important early computer).

	Howard Aiken, inspired by Babbage's work, began the design of his ASCC in 1937; actually completed and used, it was a large programmable (but not stored program) electro-mechanical general-purpose digital computing device. Later successors from IBM were entirely [[relay]]-based, not partially mechanical, as the ASCC was; and eventually (in the [[Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator]]) partly [[electronic]]. Very slightly later than the ASCC, the [[Bell Telephone Laboratories relay computing devices]] of [[George Stibitz]] were also entirely relay-based, and digital.		Howard Aiken, inspired by Babbage's work, began the design of his ASCC in 1937; actually completed and used, it was a large programmable (but not alterable stored-program) electro-mechanical general-purpose digital computing device. Later successors from IBM were entirely [[relay]]-based, not partially mechanical, as the ASCC was; and eventually (in the [[Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator]]) partly [[electronic]]. Very slightly later than the ASCC, the [[Bell Telephone Laboratories relay computing devices]] of [[George Stibitz]] were also entirely relay-based, and digital.

	==Electronic computing devices==		==Electronic computing devices==

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	==Electronic computing devices==		==Electronic computing devices==

	At about the same time as the ASCC, in 1938, [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] took the next step, and began the creation of the first [[electronic]] digital computing device, later called the [[~~Atanasoff–Berry~~ Computer]]. It was not at all programmable or general-purpose; it could only solve systems of simultaneous equations. It was notable for having inspired [[John Mauchly]] to use a digital electronic approach when he later set out to build the [[ENIAC]]; and also for being the first digital electronic computing device to use [[capacitor]]-based memory - an approach to memory now ubiquitous in the [[Dynamic RAM]] of all modern computers.		At about the same time as the ASCC, in 1938, [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] took the next step, and began the creation of the first [[electronic]] digital computing device, later called the [[Atanasoff-Berry Computer]]. It was not at all programmable or general-purpose; it could only solve systems of simultaneous equations. It was notable for having inspired [[John Mauchly]] to use a digital electronic approach when he later set out to build the [[ENIAC]]; and also for being the first digital electronic computing device to use [[capacitor]]-based memory - an approach to memory now ubiquitous in the [[Dynamic RAM]] of all modern computers.

	The [[Colossus]] digital electronic code-breaking devices of [[Tommy Flowers]], built in the UK during World War Two (construction of the first one started in 1943), were notable because they showed that large electronic computing devices could be made to operate reliably; because quite a few were produced; and because many of the post-War computer pioneers in the UK learned about the suitability of electronics for digital computing devices from them. They are often described as 'programmable', but this is incorrect - they had no program of any form, and they were not general-purpose; a better description is 'configurable'.		The [[Colossus]] digital electronic code-breaking devices of [[Tommy Flowers]], built in the UK during World War Two (construction of the first one started in 1943), were notable because they showed that large electronic computing devices could be made to operate reliably; because quite a few were produced; and because many of the post-War computer pioneers in the UK learned about the suitability of electronics for digital computing devices from them. They are often described as 'programmable', but this is incorrect - they had no program of any form, and they were not general-purpose; a better description is 'configurable'.

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	'''Notable early computing devices''' are [[computing device]]s which marked significant steps on the road from primitive computing devices (such as mechanical adding machines) to 'computers'. These are the ones which the author of this pages deems the most significant ones.		'''Notable early computing devices''' are [[computing device]]s which marked significant steps on the road from primitive computing devices (such as mechanical adding machines) to 'computers'. These are the ones which the author of this pages deems the most significant ones.

	Depending exactly how one defines 'computer', some of these might have been computers. If a computer has to be able to modify its own [[program]] (which, it must be emphasized, is a specified series of elementary steps, not simply the ability to make physical changes to the device to change what calculation it performs - even if those changes are instantiated in something that was added to the device for that exact purpose, like the [[plug-board]]s of the [[ENIAC]]) like a [[Turing machine]], none of these qualify. If it has to have the ability to do [[conditional branch]]es, those were added to the [[Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator]] and [[Zuse Z4]] later in their lives.		Depending exactly how one defines 'computer', some of these might have been computers. If a computer has to be able to modify its own [[program]] (which, it must be emphasized, is a specified series of elementary steps, stored in the device in some form, not simply the ability to make physical changes to the device to change what calculation it performs - even if those changes are instantiated in something that was added to the device for that exact purpose, like the [[plug-board]]s of the [[ENIAC]]) like a [[Turing machine]], none of these qualify. If it has to have the ability to do [[conditional branch]]es, those were added to the [[Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator]] and [[Zuse Z4]] later in their lives.

	Complex computing devices (i.e. things considerably more complex than a simple adding machines) generally preceded the creation of computers (as defined above); although as Michael Williams observed, "If you add enough adjectives to a description you can always claim [a particular machine to be the 'first']."		Complex computing devices (i.e. things considerably more complex than a simple adding machines) generally preceded the creation of computers (as defined above); although as Michael Williams observed, "If you add enough adjectives to a description you can always claim [a particular machine to be the 'first']."

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	'''Notable early computing devices''' are [[computing device]]s which marked significant steps on the road from primitive computing devices (such as mechanical adding machines) to 'computers'. These are the ones which the author of this pages deems the most significant ones.		'''Notable early computing devices''' are [[computing device]]s which marked significant steps on the road from primitive computing devices (such as mechanical adding machines) to 'computers'. These are the ones which the author of this pages deems the most significant ones.

	Depending exactly how one defines 'computer', some of these might have been computers. If a computer has to be able to modify its own [[program]] (which, it must be emphasized, is a specified series of elementary steps, not simply the ability to make physical changes to the device to change what calculation it performs - even if those changes are instantiated in something that was added to the device for that exact purpose, like the [[plug-board]s of the [[ENIAC]]) like a [[Turing machine]], none of these qualify. If it has to have the ability to do [[conditional branch]]es, those were added to the [[Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator]] and [[Zuse Z4]] later in their lives.		Depending exactly how one defines 'computer', some of these might have been computers. If a computer has to be able to modify its own [[program]] (which, it must be emphasized, is a specified series of elementary steps, not simply the ability to make physical changes to the device to change what calculation it performs - even if those changes are instantiated in something that was added to the device for that exact purpose, like the [[plug-board]]s of the [[ENIAC]]) like a [[Turing machine]], none of these qualify. If it has to have the ability to do [[conditional branch]]es, those were added to the [[Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator]] and [[Zuse Z4]] later in their lives.

	Complex computing devices (i.e. things considerably more complex than a simple adding machines) generally preceded the creation of computers (as defined above); although as Michael Williams observed, "If you add enough adjectives to a description you can always claim [a particular machine to be the 'first']."		Complex computing devices (i.e. things considerably more complex than a simple adding machines) generally preceded the creation of computers (as defined above); although as Michael Williams observed, "If you add enough adjectives to a description you can always claim [a particular machine to be the 'first']."

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	Effectively the last step before true computers was the ENIAC, a large digital electronic computing device. As originally designed, it was only configurable, requiring considerable effort to re-configure it to perform a different computation (although it was general-purpose, unlike the Atanasoff–Berry Computer and Colossus). In 1947 an effort was started to re-configure it in a way that added a certain amount of programmability, via a program stored in the 'function-table switches' (originally intended as a [[read-only memory\|ROM]] data source). Later, minor [[hardware]] modifications improved ENIACs efficiency when configured as a stored-program machine; it started to operate in that mode in 1948.		Effectively the last step before true computers was the ENIAC, a large digital electronic computing device. As originally designed, it was only configurable, requiring considerable effort to re-configure it to perform a different computation (although it was general-purpose, unlike the Atanasoff–Berry Computer and Colossus). In 1947 an effort was started to re-configure it in a way that added a certain amount of programmability, via a program stored in the 'function-table switches' (originally intended as a [[read-only memory\|ROM]] data source). Later, minor [[hardware]] modifications improved ENIACs efficiency when configured as a stored-program machine; it started to operate in that mode in 1948.

			==See also==

			* [[Notable early computers]]

	==Further reading==		==Further reading==

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	==Further reading==		==Further reading==

			* Paul E. Ceruzzi, [https://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/Reckoners.html ''Reckoners: The Prehistory of The Digital Computer, From Relays to the Stored Program Concept, 1935-1945''], Greenwood, Westport, 1983
	* William Aspray (editor), [https://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/CBC.html ''Computing Before Computers''], Iowa State University Press, Ames, 1990		* William Aspray (editor), [https://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/CBC.html ''Computing Before Computers''], Iowa State University Press, Ames, 1990
	* Brian Randell (editor), [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-96145-8 ''The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers''], Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1973, 1982 (3rd edition)		* Brian Randell (editor), [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-96145-8 ''The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers''], Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1973, 1982 (3rd edition)